• Allen ME, Weir-Jones I, Motiuk DR, Flewin KR, Goring RD, Kobetitch R, & Broadhurst A. Acceleration Perturbations of Daily Living: A Comparison to Whiplash. Spine, 19(11):1285-90, 1994.
 Four male and 4 female healthy volunteers, ages 19-50 years used. Volunteers had helmets on their heads and had 3 bimotion accelerometers attached to helmets. No motion of head and neck analyzed in any part by the authors. This study does not involve the car crash environment and simply evaluated people moving around while measuring acceleration of the head and attempted to contrast the findings to volunteer studies that have measured acceleration levels in a simulated rear-end crash test. The accelerometers only analyzed g forces of 13 activities ie plopping into chair, coughing, sneezing, crowd jostle, kick chair, standing up, looking to left, and hopping off a step. Read table 2 on page 1289 for mean values for g forces. Mean impulse time for subjects plotting backward into a chair was 190 msec. The volunteers not randomly selected from the population. This is not a whiplash (neck) study as it only measures head g’s as people self-induce various activities and does not measure g forces to the neck. No injuries or symptoms reported by volunteers. More useful for concussion research. No vehicles used. “The head position was not measured, nor was the actual motion of the head.”(p1287 C2P3L7) “Compounding the problem is that no two persons are alike. Some are weak and others are strong-from the physical and psychologic sense. A trivial perturbation to one person may, for another, appear to cause injury.”(p1288 C2P1L2). “The full spectrum of the population, with a presumed wide variance in physical and psychologic profiles, was not tested.”(p1289C3P2). No examination by a physician performed.
  • Anderson RD, Welcher JB, Szabo TJ, Eubanks JJ, Haight WR. Effect of Braking on Human Occupant and Vehicle Kinematics in Low Speed Rear-End Collisions. SAE Paper 980298, 1998.
    One male subject (one of the co-authors Rusty Haight), age 38 years. Tested in Target vehicle 1990 Dodge Shadow with head restraint up and 9 cm distance between head and restraint. Bullet vehicle was a 1996 Pontiac Bonneville and one test subject was in the bullet vehicle. A total of 18 crash tests were done. Used 5th wheel to get crash velocities. Tested at Vc of 4, 8, and 13 kmh with delta V’s ranging from 2.8 to 9 km/h. Restitution values 0.42 to 0.52 were found. Tested occupant in aware and unaware state. Aware occupant had decreased head angular acceleration and felt more comfortable during crash. Cosmetic damage to both vehicles at 5 mph. Rear of target vehicle started to deform at 5.2 mph. Braking (stop-light force) had no effect on occupant when compared to no braking. Foot comes off brake pedal during crash test. There were varying test results in the same test subject in the target vehicle. In test A1 at 3.1 mph delta V there was 1.2 g in +x and in test A2 with a 4.1 mph delta V there was 0.8 g’s having a 33% less g’s in the faster delta V test. Mechanical braking decreased target vehicle velocity changes an average of 1.2 kmh and increased bullet vehicle velocity changes an average of 0.7 kmh. Occupant seen by medical doctor and underwent pre and post testing orthopedic and neurologic evaluations. MRI done on occupant’s neck after testing and was WNL. No ROM evaluated. Palpatory exam findings noted in Appendix 1. Target vehicle volunteer had anterior neck soreness for 3 days and bullet vehicle volunteer had posterior neck soreness for 4 days.
  • Bailey MN, Wong BC, & Lawrence JM. Data and Methods for Estimating the Severity of Minor Impacts. SAE Paper 950352, 1995. Reports on several tests with unknown number of (>12) males and (>3) female test staff volunteers. Few bumpers damaged at 5 mph. Some vehicles with foam core bumpers can withstand 8.7 mph impacts without damage. Damage threshold 8 to 12.4 mph for rear-end impacts. 2 vehicle testing found e = 0.14 to 0.40. Correlation between delta V and isolator compression as long as similar masses and same type of bumper systems. Many vehicles will be undamaged at severities that are above the range where human volunteers have reported neck and back symptoms. Occupant pulse after vehicle crash pulse. Tested Ford Granada, VW, 82 Ford Escort, Toyota Corolla. Lowest delta V where volunteer reported symptoms was 3.6 mph. Authors conclude that neck and or back symptoms can occur in a rear-end impact without vehicle damage(p151 C2P5). The severity, characterized as delta V, tends to be associated with the onset of symptoms in rear-end collisions at around 4 to 5 mph and in front-end crashes at around 7.5 to 12.5 mph.(p171 C2P7L6). No examination by a physician performed.
  • Brault JR, Wheeler JB, Siegmund GP, and Brault EJ. Clinical Response of Human Subjects to Rear-End Automobile Collisions. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 79:72-79, 1998. Twenty-one males and 21 females volunteers, ages 20-40 years. Advertised in newspaper and university to get test subjects. EMG and ROM evaluation done. Only subjects 10th to 90th percentile height and weight used. Subjects excluded (MRI used) if any medical conditions such as disc protrusion, moderate DJD, or stenosis present. Subjects excluded if any history of having any treatment for neck or back injury within the past 3 years. All subjects in 1990 Honda Accord rearended by a 1976 Volvo 240D wagon. Testing done at 2.5 and 5 mph delta V. No significant difference in symptoms at 2.5 or 5 mph. All subjects had ROM loss regardless of symptoms. Found 29% of 2.5 mph and 38% of 5 mph delta V test subjects had symptoms. Average symptom for females 12 hours and 2 hours for men. Physical therapist evaluated subjects. No examination by a physician performed. Crash data of this same study also published by Siegmund SAE 1997.
  • Braun TA, Jhoun JH, Braun MJ, Wong BM, Boster TA, Kobayashi TM, Perez FA, & Helser GM. Rear-End Impact Testing with Human Test Subjects. SAE paper 2001-01-0168, 2001. Six male and 1 female volunteers ranging from age 29 to 61 years. All participants were considered to be in good health prior to start of testing. Head restraint positioning was adequate for subjects. The bullet vehicle was a 1984 Ford Mustang and the target vehicle was a 1982 Toyota Celica GT. Impact speeds ranged from 2 to 6.5 mph. Peak vehicle accelerations were 1.5 to 2.7 times higher than the average vehicle acceleration. Restitution values were 0.3 to 0.5 and impact durations were 0.09 to 0.124 seconds with duration decreasing with higher speeds. In test 3 with a delta V of 3.9 mph both subjects described that the severity of the crash exceeded forces or accelerations that they had experienced in daily activities. The amount of forward motion of target vehicle after impact was found to be a weak indicator of impact severity. Occupant crash response videotaped. Three subjects involved in multiple impacts had minor neck stiffness that resolved without treatment in one day. No physician examination done.
  • Castro WHM, Schilgen M, Meyer S, Weber M, Peuker C, and Wurtler K. Do Whiplash Injuries Occur in Low-Speed Rear Impacts? European Spine Journal, 6:366-375, 1997.Observation that 65% of all insurance claims ≤ 9.32 mph (15 kmh). “Whiplash injuries are most frequently encountered when only slight vehicle deformation (dents and scrapes) occur.” Fourteen males (age 28-47) and 5 females (ages 26-37) participated in 17 rear-end and 3 bumper-car tests. All subjects symptom free at time of test. Cervical extension varied from 10-47 degrees with an average at 20 degrees.(p370) MRI with Gd-DTPA done and a medical exam performed on each prior to testing and after. Seven subjects had DJD, 5 subjects had disc protrusion with slight epidural and subarachnoid space compression, and 1 subject had severe disc protrusion. MRI after testing showed no changes. High speed camera used for motion analysis. More head motion seen in cases with poorly positioned head restraints. EMG done on subjects. Testing delta V 5.4 to 8.8 mph. Used VW Golf, Opel Kadette, Opel Rekord, and Damler Benz 124 in crashes. Head motion started at 90 msec after impact. Five subjects, all over 11 kmh delta V, (1 female and 4 males) had neck and/or thoracolumbar symptoms which resolved within 1 week. No hyperextension seen if head restraints used up to 9.3 mph Delta V. Authors conclude that limit of harmlessness is Delta V of 6.2-9.3 mph for rear-end impacts. Had physician exam.
  • Davidsson J, Deuscher C, Hell W, Linder A, Lovsund P, & Svensson MY. Human Volunteer Kinematics in Rear-End Sled Collisions. IRCOBI Conf, pp 289-301, Goteborg, Sept 1998.Twelve male and one female healthy subjects between ages 20-50 years without any history of prior neck injury and any record of degenerative changes. Subjects used in 28 rear-end sled tests with delta V’s of 5 and 7 kmh. Used a Volvo 850 seat and 2 laboratory seats with different springs. At about 110 msec after impact the head started to rotate rearward relative to the T1 and the neck changed position from a slightly flexed to an extended posture. Ramping and a straightening of the normal thoracic spine curvature against the seat back surface was noted. Similar head and T1 displacements noted until about 75-100 msec where thereafter large variations in human resistance to sagittal bending. No symptoms reported. Had examination by physician before and after impacts. No ethics committee.
  • Davidsson J, Flogard A, Lovsund P, & Svensson MY. BioRID P3-Design and Performance Compared to Hybrid III and Volunteers in Rear Impacts at Delta V = 7 km/h. SAE paper 99SC16, 1999.Five healthy male volunteers used in sled testing using a special laboratory seat. The BioRID P3 performance was found to be similar to human tests at 7 km/h. The Hybrid III was found to be too stiff. Authors did not evaluate pain. No examination by physician noted. No ethics committee.
  • Eichberger A, Steffan H, Geigl B, Svensson M, Bostrom O, Leinzinger PE, & Darok M. Evaluation of the Applicability of the Neck Injury Criterion (NIC) in Rear End Impacts on the Basis of Human Subject Tests. ICROBI Conf Proc, pp321-333, Goteborg, 1998.Five female and 7 male healthy subjects tested and compared to Hybrid III dummy and post mortal test subjects (cadavers). In the first series of sled tests done the impact speeds were 5 to 5.5 kmh with an impact duration of 60-70 msec (hard impulse). The seatback was fixed in order to prevent bending of the seatback and a rather large prototype head restraint that had contact with subjects head. In the second series different standard car seats were used and the sled velocities were 9-11 kmh. One volunteer had minor lumbar pain, some had minor pain that started some hours after the test and lasted for 1 day, and one volunteer had neck pain for 3 weeks. A 3 ms-peak was calculated and defined as NIC. Minor complaints in subjects having NIC of about 10 seen. Significantly higher NIC seen with gaps between head and head restraint (p326). The 5 cadavers tested at 9 to 15 kmh. A correlation was found between the NIC and velocity change, crash pulse, and head restraint position. A high NIC is always related to extensive relative motion between the head and neck. A manual therapist checked test subjects before testing. No physician examination.
  • Geigl BC, Steffan H, Leinzinger P, Roll, Muhlbauer M, & Bauer G. “The Movement of Head and Cervical Spine During Rearend Impact.” IRCOBI Conf Proc, pp127-137, Lyon, France 1994.Study comparing 6 PMTO’s (Post Mortal Test Objects or fresh cadavers) to 23 male and 2 female human volunteers ages 20-60 years. Rear-end impacts using a crash sled at 4 to 7.5 mph with seats from VW Golf. Head gap varied from 0-16 cm. Using high speed video analysis the magnitude of head rotation mainly depends upon the initial distance between the head and head restraint.(p132 bottom) In testing where there was no gap between the head and head restraint there was 15 degrees of head rotation compared to 75 degrees with 16 cm gap. Head contact with the head restraint occurs at about 100 msec after impact. Upper neck flexion seen first. Mean accelerations of 2-8 g’s noted in tests. No examination by a physician done.
  • Geigl BC, Steffan H, Dippel Ch, Muser MH, Walz F, Svensson MY. Comparison of Head-Neck Kinematics During Rear End Impact Between Standard Hybrid III, RID Neck, Volunteers, and PMTO’s. IRCOBI Conf Proc, pp261-270, Brunnen, Switzerland, 1995.Study comparing Hybrid III Dummy, RID necks (Rear Impact Dummy (RID) has 7 cervical and 2 thoracic vertebrae), PMTO’s (Post Mortal Test Objects), and unknown # male/female volunteers (age 20-30) in rear end impacts using sled at 4 to 10 mph with seat from VW Golf. Volunteer testing only at 3 g level. Hybrid III dummy motion was found to be different than human volunteers. In test dummies the authors were unable to approximate the distance between the head and the head restraint to the human volunteers. Peak head accelerations were three times higher than the mean sled acceleration. No volunteers evaluated for pain. No examination by a physician performed.
  • Hell W, Langwieder K, Walz F, Muser M, Kramer M, & Hartwig E. Consequences for Seat Design due to Rear End accident analysis, Sled Tests and Possible Test Criteria for Reducing Cervical Spine Injuries After Rear-end Collision. IRCOBI Conf Proc, pp243-259, Spain, 1999.Sixteen male and 3 female test volunteers (study previously used in Krononenberg’s 1998 SAE study) ages 17 to 51 years (mean 29.9 years) tested in sleds with delta V ranging from 6.5 to 9.5 kmh. EMG testing done in 15 tests. Also analyzed 170 real world cases with PC crash to determine delta V for the target vehicle concluding that about 50% of the cases reporting cervical spine injuries had a delta V of 9.3 mph or less. Parameters found that had significant influence on the kinematic responses of the volunteers included neck circumference, head height, body height, body weight, distance between the C7 and sitting level, and distance between the head and the head restraint. Females had higher head acceleration. Even in identical sled tests (same speed and seat) different kinematic behavior was observed. No physician examination performed before and after testing.
  • Kaneoka K, Ono K, Inami S, & Hayashi K. Motion Analysis of Cervical Vertebrae During Whiplash Loading. Spine 24(8):763-70, 1999.Same data published in 1997 IRCOBI and 1998 Frontiers in Whiplash Trauma. Ten healthy male volunteers (university students or MD’s) with average of age 23 years with no history of cervical spine injury or degenerative changes tested on a sled apparatus using two accelerometers. EMG and cineradiography (90 frames/sec) used. Sled moved backward down a ramp and impacted a damper at about 4 kmh. EMG found SCM discharge from 80-200 msec. C6 moved upward and peaked at about 130 msec after impact. The bending moment of the cervical spine peaked at 150 msec. The cervical spine moved in extension from the lower vertebrae first which is not normally seen with normal extension motion. Most whiplash injuries happen at low velocities. Authors hypothesize that facet collisions are likely to impinge on and inflame the synovial folds in the zygapophyseal joints, causing neck pain (facet synovial fold impingement syndrome). All subjects examined 1 day and 1 year after the test with no postexperimental symptoms noted.
  • van den Kronenberg A, Phillippens M, Cappon H, Wismans J, Hell W, &Langwieder K. Human Head-Neck Response During Low-Speed Rear End Impacts. SAE Paper 983158, 1998.Sixteen males and 3 females (same subjects used in Hell’s 1999 IRCOBI study) tested on a standard car seat that was mounted on a trolley which was accelerated forward by a bullet sled simulating rear impact. Ages 17 to 51 years. Subjects adopted normal postures. Head restraints high position. EMG done on 2 of subjects neck muscles. Tests filmed at 500 fps. Volunteers excluded if spine problems existed. Tri-axial accelerometer attached to head and to the T1 area. Test done at ranges of 6.5 to 9.5 km/h delta V. For 3 females tested at seatback angle of 25 degrees compared to males at same angle, females had higher peak head acceleration (10 g compared to 13 g). Subjects head began to move in respect to T1 at about 100 msec with peak values at 150 msec. Peak head accelerations correlated well with neck circumference Authors felt that higher x-accelerations for females due to thinner necks or due to males having heavier masses resulting in more seatback deflection producing lower T1 accelerations. Head contact with the head restraint happened in all 43 tests. No physician examination done on subjects.
  • Kumar S, Narayan Y, & Amell T. Role of Awareness in Head-Neck Acceleration in Low Velocity Rearend Impacts. WAD 99 Traffic Safety and Auto Engineering, World Congress on WAD, Vancouver, pp276-296, 1999.Five male and 9 female healthy test subjects with mean ages of 24.2-26.4 years with no history of whiplash injury or known musculoskeletal disorder. Subjects remunerated at $10.00 per hour. Laboratory seat used with 4-point restraint system. Sleds were accelerated to 0.5 to 1.4 g’s. Study revealed that peak acceleration was significantly affected by the gender (lighter weight than males), intensity of impact, and expectation. No physician examination done. No ethics committee. No evaluation for symptoms.
  • Linder A, Lovsund P & Steffan H, “Validation of the BioRID P3 Against Volunteer and PMHS Test Data and Comparison to the Hybrid III in Low-Velocity Rear-end Impacts.” Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Spain, 1999. Three male subjects ages 22-31 with no history of neck pain were subjected in two different car seats (stiff and soft) and subjected to the same acceleration pulse of 10 kmh delta V. In addition tests with 6.2 to 9.3 mph delta V acceleration pulses in a Hyper G sled and compared to a 50th percentile BioRid P3 and Hybrid III-TRID dummies. The maximum head acceleration for the Hybrid III dummy was 17 msec later than the human and the BioRid P3 was 7 msec earlier. The BioRID P3 was found to perform better than the Hybrid III dummy. “Soft tissue neck injuries in rear-end collisions mostly occur at low impact velocities.” None of the volunteers had any post-test symptoms. No ethic committee evaluation of volunteers. No physician examination was done.
  • McConnell WE, Howard RP, Guzman HM, Bomar JB, Raddin JH, Benedict JV, Smith HL, & Hatsell CP. Analysis of Human Test Subject Kinematic Responses to Low Velocity Rear End Impacts. SAE Paper 930889, 1993.Four robustly healthy male volunteer employees ages 45-56, all had cervical-thoracic-lumbar x-rays. Also used a Hybrid III test dummy. Multiple test runs done at 2.5 and 5 mph using a ramp. Used Ford van, 84 GMC PU truck, 86 Dodge 600 convertible, & 84 Buick Regal. Bullet vehicles were modified by replacing front bumper with steel beam with wood faced structure. All struck vehicle occupants had 40-45 degrees of extension.(p26 C1P5L5) 3 test subjects (multiple runs) had neck discomfort with one lasting 3 days.(p23 C1P3) From a clinical view point, the 5 mph Delta V tests appear to be on the threshold for mild cervical strain injury for their repetitively exposed test subjects.(p27 C1P4L12) Tension-compression model for injury mechanism as spine loses curves and gets longer. “The reported results of this study suggest a compression-tension injury causation mechanism which probably can cause self-limited minor cervical, thoracic, and lumbar muscle strains and, possible, connective tissue and/or vertebral joint micro-contusional injuries and that may account for the discomfort symptoms commonly reported after low velocity rearend collisions.” A 4-5 mph Delta V is probably at or near typical human threshold for very mild, single event cervical strain injury.(p29 C1P2L1) This study was adopted by the Quebec Task Force study. No examination findings reported by a physician even though they state that the physical condition of the volunteer was checked. Dr McConnell is a medical doctor.
  • McConnell WE, Howard RP, Poppel JV, Krause R, Guzman HM, Bomar JB, Raddin JH, Benedict JV, & Hatsell CP. Human Head and Neck Kinematics after Low Velocity Rear-end Impacts: Understanding Whiplash. SAE Paper 952724, 1995.Seven healthy male staff at Biodynamics Research Corp. in Texas (3 used in 1993 paper) ages 32 to 59. All had cervical x-rays. Performed 14 test collisions in 3 vehicles. Four test subjects exposed to 3 crash tests. Used a 84 Buick Regal and 86 Dodge 600 convertible for target vehicle. Used 84 GMC C-1500 PU truck as bullet vehicle on ramp at 3.6 to 6.8 mph. Bullet vehicles were modified by replacing front bumper with steel beam with wood faced structure.(p215, C2P3L3) The seat moved vertically under occupant 2-3 inches causing ramping.(p222, C2P1L23) The thoracic spine straightened out as it was pushed forward by the seat. Around 180-200 msec the typical test volunteer’s head reached its maximum rearward rotation and maximum neck extension of 18-51 degrees. The head remains stationary initially and appears to “loop over” the advancing and lowering head restraint. Authors felt that a 5 mph test was convenient delta V level to assess injury potential. Found Sternocleidomastoid muscles will pull on skull. One test subject used with head turned and was excluded from further testing due to pain.(p220, C2P1L22) All of subjects had some test related “awareness” or discomfort symptoms, mostly fleeting.(p220, C2P1L10) Physician exam before testing but not after.
  • Magnusson ML, Pope MH, Hasselquist L, Bolte KM, Ross M, Goel VK, Lee JS, Spratt K, Clark CR, & Wilder DG. Cervical Electromyographic Activity During Low-Speed Rear Impact. Eur Spine J, 8:118-25, 1999.Eight healthy male subjects, ages 24-56 years, with no history of whiplash or neck injury tested. Volunteers seated on a car seat mounted on a sled. No steering wheel, seatbelt, or head restraint was used in testing. Tested aware and unaware states. Average muscle response (used EMG) was 112 msec. They found no difference in muscle reaction time between expected and unexpected volunteers except for the splenius capitus muscle. Muscles with longer moment arms have shorter reaction times. The magnitude of head acceleration was twice as high as the sled. No physician examination done after impacts.
  • Matsushita T, Sato TB, Hirabayashi K, Fujimura S, Asuzuma T & Takatori T. X-Ray Study of the Human Neck Motion Due to Head Inertia Loading. SAE Paper 942208, 1994.Twenty-six test healthy volunteers (4 female) ages 22-61 years analyzed in 4 frontal, 3 side, and 19 rear end crashes from 1.6 to 3.6 mph. MRI done prior to testing. Insurance study. Used an Ito Seiki 3KGM-JM50 crash dummy in one rear-end test. Sled used with pendulum. Total sled impact duration was short at 55 msec (100 msec typical for car). Seats from 1991 Honda Today, 1988 Toyota Crown, and a 1991 Nissan Pulsar. Two females used in rear-end tests. High speed X-ray study (90 fps) done on human neck. EMG used in tests. Hyperextension did not occur in any test. Head acceleration began at 100 msec. Three male subjects tested at the same 3.6 kmh and were all relaxed had 3.2, 5.1, and 5.4 g’s of head acceleration (41% difference). One subject had head rotated resulting in SCM pain. One leaning forward occupant had low back ache. For 26 test subjects 6 volunteers (23%) reported mild discomfort after test that lasted 2-4 days. Frontal crash testing found significant differences seen in belted versus unbelted volunteer. In unbelted occupant no change in shape of cervical curve due to no torso restraint. Jaw protrusion seen in belted cases. Exam done prior but no examination by a physician performed after testing.
  • Mertz HJ and Patrick LM. Investigation of the Kinematics and Kinetics of Whiplash. SAE Paper 670919, 1967.One human male volunteer (co-author), two cadavers, and two 2 anthropomorphic dummies used (Alderson F5-AU and Sierra dummy). The seat was rigidly constructed using steel and plywood for the seat back and bottom. The volunteer represented an aware person with a lap belt only on in an impending impact (p59) having 27 degrees of extension during impact. Volunteer had padding on headrest to eliminate gap and was compared with test having a gap between head and restraint. Higher loading seen with gap testing. Volunteer impact speed at 10 mph on a horizontal accelerator sled. Volunteer also tested at 44 mph noting slight neck discomfort. Did testing with a series of pulleys attached to the volunteer’s head and hands to see how much force could be self induced before onset of neck pain. The authors did this voluntary neck static head loading to set injury threshold for whiplash injuries. Concludes on p 63 “However, the 10 mph rear-end collision should be tolerable even in the case of the unsuspecting individual.” On page71 concludes that “with the head in contact with a flat headrest and the seat back rigid, a 44 mph rear-end collision can be withstood with little discomfort.” No physician examination done.
  • Mertz HJ and Patrick LM. Strength and Response of the Human Neck. SAE Paper 710855, 1971.Used one test subject, the same male LMP volunteer (co-author) as in the 1967 paper. Volunteer (co-author) is age 49, 68 inches tall, and weighs 160 pounds and was used in static pulley neck strength testing and dynamic sled tests. Cadavers were tested in this study to compare to single subject. Human subject in a rigid chair (steel & plywood) on a WHAM I sled. Two crisscrossed shoulder belts used in sled testing. Volunteer subjected to 46 sled tests at varying levels. In addition, 90 static tests were done on 10 other human volunteers while seated in a rigid chair and pulling on a cable attached to their head.. Tolerance level proposed for 50th percentile adult male was 44 ft/lb equivalent moment about the occipital condyle for the initiation of pain. No physician examination done.
  • Meyer S, Weber M, Castro W, Schilgen M, & Peuker C. The Minimal Collision Velocity for Whiplash. Chapter 10, in book Gunzburg, Whiplash Injuries: Current Concepts in Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Cervical Whiplash Syndrome. Lippincott-Raven publishers, 1998.Found in German data base that 65% of all rear-end crashes had slight (22% scratch and mild dents) to moderate (up to 10 cm) crush damage. Four female and 12 male volunteers used in testing. Subjects were technical or medical experts who also had personal interest in the results of the trials.(p100 P7L6) Testing at 3.7 and 7.5 mph. Head acceleration starts at about 110 msec. The lowest biomechanical stress occurs when there is no distance between occupant and seat. Most of the subjects did not complain of pain after test. Two subjects reported neck muscle tension in conjunction with slight restriction of movement, which disappeared within the next few days.(p107 P1L1) Authors feel that Delta V of 6.2 mph harmless. Had medical (orthopedic/manual medical/neurologic) examination before and after crash. No ROM findings or palpatory findings reported. Subjects had computer-controlled ultrasound examination of the motility of the cervical spine and spin tomography of the cervical spine with and without gd-DTPA.
  • Meyer S, Hugemann W, & Weber M. Zur Belastung der Halswirbelsauledurch Auffahrokollisionen. Verkehrsunfall und Fahrzeugtechnik, 32:15-21, 187-199, 1994.Two test male subjects at about age 30 used in delta V of 6 to 12 kpa. Human subjects used in 14 rear-end impact tests. Used dummies also. Did bumper car testing as well. Surface EMG used. No symptoms developed. No medical monitoring or examination by a physician performed.
  • Nielsen GP, Gough JP, Little DM, West DH, & Baker VT. Repeated Low Speed Impacts with Utility Vehicles and Humans. Accident Reconstruction Journal, p24-38, Sept/Oct 1996.Also published in SAE paper 970394. Seven male test subjects used. All subjects had been in prior crash testing. Subject (YY) was Co-author Nilsen. All subjects were engineering staff members. Eight vehicles used in a series of 23 rear-end vehicle-to-vehicle, 25 frontal crashes, and 2 barrier tests using utility type vehicles. Used 1990 Ford F150 pick-up, 1993 Ford E250,1989 Mazda B2200 PU, 1988 Toyota Celica, 1988 Jeep Cherokee, 1971 VW van, 1981 Toyota PU, & a 1982 Dodge 150 van. Aggregate damage to the vehicles after repeated crash testing was evaluated. The vehicles were subjected to repeated crash testing with original bumpers left intact. Overall, the threshold for the vehicles having a damage threshold was 3.4 to 5.4 mph (5.5 to 8.7 kmh) for rear bumpers and 3.4 to 4.7 mph for front bumpers. Testing of volunteers included 25 frontal and 25 rear-end impacts. A range of 1.1 to 5.6 mph delta V was done in the rear-end crashes. Video analysis was done on the test occupants. Test subjects were asked to compare the impacts to activities of daily living. Two subjects reported temporary symptoms (cervical pain and headache) of injury. No ethics committee used and no physician examination was performed on subjects. One physician test subject gave subjective self-evaluation of how the collision felt.
  • Ono K and Kanno M. Influences of the Physical Parameters on the Risk to Neck Injuries in Low Impact Speed Rear-end Collisions. IRCOBI Conf Proc,Eindhoven, 1993.Authors used a sled to test 3 male subjects ages 22-43 wearing seatbelts and seating normally tested at 2-4 kmh ranges. This study found that about 50% of two vehicle crash injury claims occurred at low speeds, primarily in rearenders. Out of 297,417 rear-end crashes analyzed, 77.5% involved AIS 1 neck injuries. EMG used on test subjects. Head rotation seen at 100 msec. Used a cadaver also. It was found that the impact response on the head-neck area was affected markedly by the differences in the impact speed, sitting posture, and headrest height. The bending moment of the neck with the low headrest is about 50% higher than the standard headrest. The EMG response findings were about 30% higher in cases where the seatback was reclined backwards. No examination by a physician performed.
  • Ono K and Kaneoka K. Motion Analysis of Human Cervical Vertebrae during Low Speed Rear Impacts by the Simulated Sled. IRCOBI Conf Proc,Hannover, 1997.Ten healthy male test volunteers (average age of 23) without history of cervical spine injury. All tested for spine degeneration on x-ray and was not present. Tests in sled with ordinary car seat and rigid wooden seat (slide down ramp backwards) analyzed in 1.4 to 4 mph rear-end impacts. Chest starts accelerating at 30 msec, sled peak acceleration at 50 msec, and the subjects slides up seatback and head acceleration becomes maximum at 110-120 msec. Maximum head extension angles occur around 200 msec. MRI done on volunteers before testing. Used X-ray and EMG analysis. X-ray found that C5-C6 had highest rotational angle.(P234 P1L4). “The motions of the cervical vertebrae are beyond the normal physiological motions. The rotational angle of the cervical vertebrae during impact is particularly high between the fifth and sixth vertebral facets, that are quite different from that in normal condition. The lower vertebral center of rotation moves upward on impact which makes the articular facets collide with each other easily.(p235 P2L15) Interviewed by physician after test and handed out questionnaire with no symptoms reported. No examination by a physician performed.
  • Ono K, Kaneoka K, Wittek A, & Kajzer J.Cervical Injury Mechanism Based on the Analysis of Human Cervical Vertebral Motion and Head-Neck-Torso Kinematics During Low Speed Rear Impacts. SAE Paper 973340, 1997.Twelve healthy male volunteers (average age 24 years) with x-rays to exclude any degenerative changes. Testing at 2.5 to 5 mph sled impacts. Used X-ray (90 frames/sec), high speed video, and EMG analysis during tests. When subjects underwent impact, the cervical spine would initially flex, with the lower cervical vertebral segments extending and rotating prior to the motions of the upper segments. Those motions were beyond the normal physiological cervical motion, which should be attributed to the facet joint injury mechanism.(p339) Cervical muscles activated before impact reduced maximum head extension angles by 30-40%. One subject had symptoms next day that resolved in a few days. Doctor did interview. Higher neck injury incidence for occupants with kyphosis position (neck flexed 30 degrees forward from neutral). Seatback stiffness had effects on motion. They found with EMG that the start time for SCM muscle activation was 76-93 msec. Authors describe a “Facet Joint Injury Mechanism p354. Interviewed by physician after test and handed out questionnaire. No examination by a physician.
  • Ono K, Inami S, Kaneoka K, Gotou T, Kisanuki Y, Sakuma S, & Miki K. Relationship Between Localized Spine Deformation and Cervical Vertebral Motions for Low Speed Rear Impacts Using Human Volunteers. IRCOBIConf Proc, Spain, 1999.Seven male test subjects with an average age of 24 years were tested and compared with BioRID P3 and Hybrid III dummies. Ethics committee used. Each subject mounted on a sled that had a seat that would glide backward from 4-6 kmh. Cervical ROM evaluated through high speed video and cervical vertebral motion analyzed at 90 fps. Rigid and standard seats were compared in testing. At 20 msec seatback pressure generated in low back with beginning of lumbar extension. At 70 msec thoracic extension occurred with maximum cervical spine extension occurring at 150 msec. The lumbar spine motion first occurred after the thighs moved backward with inertia, then the pelvis around L5-S1 interacts with the seatback and the thigh motion turns into rotation against the pelvis. Lumbar spines will flex and/or extend depending upon the seat cushion property. Authors conclude that the T1 rotation is the direct significant reflection of the rotations of the lower spinal vertebrae such as the middle thoracic and lumbar spinal vertebrae. Some of the occupant and dummy motion findings by Ono were published by Davidson (“A Comparison Between Volunteer, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III Performance in Rear Impacts.”) in same IRCOBI 1999 conference and in a 1999 SAE conference. No examination by physician done.
  • Pope MH, Aleksiev A, Hasselquist L, Magnusson ML, Spratt K, & Szpalski M. Neurophsiologic Mechanisms of Low-Velocity Non-Head-Contact Cervical Acceleration. In Whiplash Injuries: Current Concepts in Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Cervical Whiplash Syndrome, eds.Gunzburg R& Szpalski M.pp89-93, Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998. Ten male volunteers, ages 18-25, tested on a sled with four wheels. Subjects tested in expected and unexpected states for acceleration levels. “The muscle reaction appears to be initiated by the initial impact, and it will affect the biomechanics and could even be a secondary source of injury.” No evaluation for symptoms done. No examination by physician performed.
  • Rosenbluth W and Hicks L. Evaluating Low-Speed Rear-End Impact Severity and Resultant Occupant Stress Parameters. J Forensic Sciences, 39(6): 1393-1424, 1994.Three male volunteers tested with a (ASA-SAE J944) maniken at varying impact speeds. Tested in varying 1980-1983 Rabbit, Accord, LTD, Citation, and ASA sled configurations. Male volunteers also tested in parking lot speed bumps and curb roll-off situations. The ASA test volunteers, subjected to multiple test exposures, up through 4.8 mph BEV. The authors compared triaxial acceleration data attached to the helmeted heads of a 7 year old female and 28 year old female who skipped a rope. Male subjects were polled for symptoms after multiple testing with no symptoms reported. Volunteers not examined before or after testing. Authors attempt to correlate activities of daily living (skipping rope) to whiplash injury.
  • Scott MW, McConnell WE, Guzman HM, Howard RP, Bomar JB, Smith HL, Benedict JV, Raddin JH, & Hatsell CP. Comparison of Human and ATD Head Kinematics During Low-Speed Rearend Impacts. SAE Paper 930094, 1993.One healthy male staff volunteer at Biodynamics Research Corp age 50 and had x-rays taken neck/low back. Hybrid III Anthropometric Test Device (ATD) dummy used. 86 Dodge 600, 84 Buick Regal, 84 Ford club wagon, and 84 GMC 1500 PU truck. Three crashes from same human at 2.5 to 5 mph delta V tests. Human subject had two distinct head acceleration pulse peaks. Series of 10 two-vehicle rear-end crashes. Male subject (multiple tests) had neck symptoms for 24 hours. Dummy different than human and not good for low-speed tests. Human volunteers tend to ramp whereas ATD’s do not. The human subject tended to get elongate or get taller vertically, due to spine straightening. Had pre-test physical which included x-rays of neck, thoracic, and lumbar spines. No examination after test by a physician performed.
  • Severy DM, Mathewson JH, & Bechtol CO. Controlled Automobile Rear-End Collisions, an Investigation of Related Engineering and Medical Phenomena. Canadian Services Medical Journal, p727-759, November, 1955.One male volunteer tested in a 2 door 1947 Plymouth sedan with a jump seat that was rear-ended by a 1941 Plymouth that had one male subject. Used anthropometric dummy (SED) also. No head restraint in vehicle. Human used in 8.2 and 9.4 mph testing. Lap belt only. “The 7 mph collision developed a permanent deformation of 1.2 inches for the front car, but no permanent deformation for the rear car.” The rear end collision victim may suffer injuries to front of body as a result of being pitched forward. “The 10 mph collision produced higher resultant load on the head than the 20 mph collision. Injury pattern can be influenced by speed, type car, type seatback, posture, and whether occupant prepared for crash. No examination by a physician performed.
  • Siegmund GP and Williamson PB, “Speed Chance (DV) of Amusement Park Bumper Cars.” Canadian Multidisciplinary Road Safety Conf VIII, June 1993.Two male subjects. Ten low speed bumper-to-bumper amusement park bumper car impacts at a target vehicle having a Delta V maximum of 4.8 mph or 7.7 kmh.(p299 P1L11) Rigid seat noted in bumper cars. Occupant dynamics may not be same in bumper car crashes as in passenger cars due to seat being fixed.(p306 P3L1) Bumper car dynamics may be similar to vehicles. Compared restitution values of bumper cars to those of a Corolla, and Cavalier passenger car. No examination by a physician performed.
  • Siegmund GP, King DJ, Lawrence JM, Wheeler JB, Brault JR, & Smith TA. Head/Neck Kinematic Response of Human Subjects in Low-Speed Rear-End Collisions. SAE Paper 973341, 1997.Study used 42 human test subjects (21 males and 21 females prescreened to be in the 10th to 90th percentile in height and weight) ages 20-40. Testing done at 2.5 and 5 mph. Subjects with prior medical conditions, & prior injury claim excluded.(p358 C2P1L1) MRI on each one done and any with moderate or greater DJD or disc bulging > 2mm excluded. MEA 5th wheel used for vehicle speeds. A 1981 Volvo 240 DL station wagon was the bullet vehicle. A 1990 Honda Accord LX 4-door sedan struck vehicle. Head restraint was in up position. No damage was sustained to Honda’s bumper in 100 tests.(p360 C1P4L13) In all tests initial flexion neck seen with 13 degrees maximum observed. Head restraint contact was made in 80 of 81 tests. For all subjects, the top of the head restraint was above the ears and backset was less than 10cm.(p367 C1P4L13) Some subjects did not extend neck at all relative to origin. Peak head extension relative to C7-T1 was less than 20 degrees from the initial position for all subjects Female subjects had greater and earlier horizontal accelerations of the head and C7-T1 joint axis than males.(p367 C1P1L1) Peak vehicle force was 42 msec for 4 kmh and 35 msec for 8 kmh testing. Mean head contact with the head restraint was 118 msec at 4 kmh and 94 msec after impact. Mean head restraint contact duration was 95 msec for the 4 kmh test amd 103 msec for the 8 kmh test. Restitution values of 0.59 for 4 kmh and 0.56 for 8 kmh testing. No examination by a physician performed. On page 368 Table 5 with 42 tests at 4 kmh the range of peak head acceleration was 1.6 to 5 g’s. In 39 tests at 8 kmh the range of peak head acceleration (g) varied from 6.7 to 12 g’s.
  • Szabo TJ, Welcher JB, Anderson RD, Rice MM, Ward JA, Paulo LR, & Carpenter NJ. Human Occupant Kinematic Response to Low-Speed Rear-End Impacts. SAE Paper 940532, 1994.Five staff volunteers (3 male and 2 female) ages 27-58, compared with Hybrid II dummy and a 50th percentile six-year old child dummy in rear seat. Used 1980-1981 Ford Escort (have isolators) vehicles (most likely to be undamaged in a test). One volunteer sat with increased distance between head and headrest. Seats and isolators replaced between each test. Slight ramping noted in all cases.(p27 C2P5L2) Six 10 mph tests done with brakes applied. Pulse impact duration was about 100 msec. Peak head acceleration 10-13 g, peak cervical a = 5.6 g, peak lumbar a = 3.9 to 5.2 g.(p32) Did 6 tests and 4 failed. Head restraint contact seen in every test. Seatbelt webbing retractors locked in every test. None of the drivers maintained a secure grip on the steering wheel. No chin to chest contact seen in any test. Peak vehicle acceleration was 5-6 g. Peak head acceleration factor 2-3 x higher than peak car acceleration.(p33 C2P4L11) One subject had 46 mm (2 ¼ in) of forward knee motion.(p31 C1P2L1) Had MRI done of neck and back 1 month before and 3 months after. Some had degeneration or DJD. 5 mph testing done on 5 volunteers. Hybrid II Dummy motions were dissimilar to occupants (p27 C2P7L1). Two volunteers had less than 10 degrees of cervical extension relative to pre-impact position and one volunteer had 70 degrees of flexion.(p29) Target vehicle pulse duration 100 msec at Delta V of 5 mph.(p27 C1P4L2) Physician exam prior but not after testing.
  • Szabo TJ and Welcher JB. Human Subject Kinematics and Electromyographic Activity During Low Speed Rear Impacts. SAE Paper 962432, 1996.One female and 4 male healthy staff volunteers, ages 22-54, all subjects reported that they were in good health. Three volunteers had prior history of injuries. Ten tests of delta V of 5 to 6.2 mph in two mid 1970’s Volvos. Subjects instructed to sit normally. Did bumper-to-bumper tests. Used surface EMG showing muscle activation at 100-125 msec. Shoulder harness locked each test. No injuries noted. Some vehicles had 2 inches of head restraint padding added prior to impact. Padding reduced cervical extension and reduced head acceleration. No hyperextension seen. In 7 of the 10 tests the test subject described rearward-then-forward while 3 subjects described motion as forward first. Hand grip not maintained. Test T208A1 and T208B2 both had a delta V of 9.6 kmh and the peak head g’s were 14.8 and 5.2 respectively. The majority of lumbar motion occurred before any EMG signals start with one test (T208A1) occurring 80 msec after onset of lumbar acceleration. Authors didn’t use dummies as the felt that they do not accurately account for muscle effects. Conclude that 4 mph is within tolerance for a reasonably healthy occupant, assuming the presence of a head restraint and relatively normal initial seating position. No structural damage to any vehicles. Subjects given symptom questionnaire. No examination by a physician.
  • Tanner CB, Chen HF, Wiechel JF, Brown DR, & Guenther DA. Vehicle and Occupant Response in Heavy Truck to Car Low-Speed Rear Impacts. SAE paper 970120, SP-1231, 1997.Two male and 1 female volunteers used with instrumented Hybrid III dummies. One test involved a Kenworth Tractor bobtail rearending a Mustang. Second test involved 1982 Plymouth Horizon rearending a 1986 Chevy Blazer. High speed video used to analyze occupant motion. Only at the highest levels of impact was any mention made of an uncomfortable feeling or of tightness of the neck muscles, and this resolved itself within a day. It was only noted by the female subject after the 2.25 m/sec (5 mph) impact. No examination done.
  • Tencer AF, Mirza SM, Martin D, Goodwin V, Sackett R, & Schaefer J. Development of a Retrofit Anti-Whiplash Seat Cushion Based on Studies of Crash Victims and Human Volunteers. In Frontiers in Whiplash Trauma, eds Yoganandan N and Pintar FA, pp 389-405, IOS Press, 2000. Eleven human volunteers, using 9 men and 2 women, with age ranges of 21-61 years. A 1981 Ford Escort used in testing by towing their vehicle backwards into a barrier at 3 mph with a cable which then was released to allow the car to rebound forward at about 2 mph for a total delta V of about 5 mph. Each volunteer wore a head strap onto which 5 accelerometers had been rigidly attached. A video camera documented occupant position and motion. Each volunteer was subjected to 3 impacts. After each initial test the subject turned their head 45 degrees. Head turning effected the –y (lateral) acceleration levels. None of the volunteers reported injury following testing. No examination by physician performed. Have to consider that the muscle response may be different with subject moving backwards prior to impact compared to occupant who is not moving and is unaware. As a second part of study, the authors analyzed 235 patient medical records from low-speed (less than 11.3 kph) rear world crashes. Found that there was no association due to age, gender, having the foot on the brake, prior spinal degeneration, or severity of impact. However, the authors found that awareness of impending impact had significant injury lessening benefits with an odds ratio of 1.98.
  • Watanabe Y, Ichikawa H, Kayama O, Ono K, Kaneoka K, & Inami S. Relationships Between Occupant Motion and Seat Characteristics in Low-Speed Rear Impacts. SAE Paper 1999-01-0635, 1999.One 21 year old male volunteer used in this sled test. Cervical vertebral motions were photographed with an x-ray cineradiographic system at a speed of 90 frames/sec. Compared to a Hybrid-III (AM50) Dummy with a TRID II neck. Dummy tested at 20 kmh and the human volunteer tested at 8 kmh (5 mph). Seatbacks that moved up and forward reduced occupant motion. Head restraint position influenced occupant motion. Seatback stiffness influenced motion. Stiffer seats caused less backward bending moment of the lower neck (My) and backward rotational angle of the lower neck (q). No examination by physician done.
  • Welcher JB, Szabo TJ, & Vos DP. Human Occupant Motion in Rear-End Impacts: Effects of Incremental Increases in Velocity Change. SAE paper 2001-01-8999, 2001.One female subject, age 33, financially paid for her time, was subjected to five instrumented crashes of incremental speed increases (1-5 mph). Target vehicle 1987 Plymouth Voyager minivan and striking vehicle was a 1991 Ford Explorer. Less forward knee motion was noted with increased speeds. No pain noted with telephone follow-up. No examination by physician done.
  • West DH, Gough JP, & Harper GTK. Low Speed Rear-End Collision Testing Using Human Subjects. Accident Reconstruction Journal , May/June p22-26, 1993.“Low speed rear impacts which result in little or no damage to the struck vehicle comprise a significant percentage of the total number of motor vehicle accidents, particularly in urban areas. While the damage resulting from these impacts in minimal or non-existent, claims of neck or back injury often result” Five normal male volunteers, ages 25-43 with no pre-existing spinal deficiencies. One series involved tow truck with a steel push bumper hitting rear of a test car. Second series involved 3 vehicles where one hit the vehicle in front. The Ventura underrode the Saab resulting in lower acceleration. Third series car backed into a barrier. Fourth series cars rolled into concrete barrier until damage occurs. The Granada did not exhibit any damage until 9.6 mph.(p24 C2P2L1) Subjects used hockey helmets with accelerometers up to 8 mph. Used a 1979 Pontiac Ventura, 1979 Plymouth Horizon, 1977 Saab, Plymouth Valiant, and one tow truck (striking). Two volunteers had minor neck pain 1-2 days. One subject requested that head restraint be moved upward to full height before submitting to a higher speed impact. Significant rebound of head seen when striking speed >5.4 mph. The maximum level of cervical extension approached 60 degrees when adequate head support was not present at 3 & 5 mph.(p25 C1P5L4) If pre-existing conditions exist, must consider (p25 C2P6L3) If head is turned at impact tolerance reduced.(p25 C2P5L3) If proper head support is available, impacts with an EBS in excess of 5 mph can be tolerated without injury.(p26 C1P1L5) No examination by a physician performed.
Frontal Crash Testing Using Volunteers
  • Bailey MN, Wong BC, & Lawrence JM. Data and Methods for Estimating the Severity of Minor Impacts. SAE Paper 950352, 1995. Five male staff volunteers tested with no symptoms being reported in frontal impacts. The severity, characterized as delta V, tends to be associated with the onset of symptoms in front-end crashes at around 7.5 to 12.5 mph.(p171 C2P7L6) No examination by a physician performed.
  • Chandler RF and Christian RA. Crash Testing of Humans in Automobile Seats. SAE Paper 700361, 1970. Thirteen healthy (had physical exam by MD prior to testing) Air Force male personnel subjects ages 20-32 exposed to Daisy Decelerator on a sled. Test subjects exposed to 15 mph impact velocity (12 g’s) using high speed film. Just prior to frontal impact most subjects pushed back into the seat.(p118 C2P1L1) 13 subjects reported moderate neck pain or chest wall pain.(p123 C1P1L1) Three tests produced submarining (under seatbelt).(p126 C2P3L1). No examination by a physician performed after testing.
  • Cheng R, Mital NK, Levine RS, & King AI. Biodynamics of the Living Human Spine During –Gx Impact Acceleration. SAE Paper 791027, 1979.Four male and 3 female volunteers used in Wham III sled tests from 2-8 g’s. Female volunteers withdrew from testing before males. Transient neck pain reported. Exam by physician done.
  • Matsushita T, Sato TB, Hirabayashi K, Fujimura S, Asuzuma T & Takatori T, X-Ray Study of the Human Neck Motion Due to Head Inertia Loading. SAE Paper 942208, 1994.Four frontal impacts using 2 belted and 2 unbelted male volunteers on a sled at a 5.7 kmh impact. Significant differences in cervical spine motion seen in belted versus unbelted volunteer. In unbelted occupant no change in shape of cervical curve due to no torso restraint. Jaw protrusion seen in belted cases. Exam by physician prior to testing but not performed after testing.
  • Nielsen GP, Gough JP, Little DM, West DH, & Baker VT. Repeated Low Speed Impacts with Utility Vehicles and Humans. Accident Reconstruction Journal, p24-38, Sept/Oct 1996.Seven male test subjects used. All subjects had been in prior crash testing. Subject (YY) was Co-author Nilsen. All subjects were engineering staff members. The 25 frontal impacts involving utility vehicles ranged from 2.2 to 11 kmh (1.4-6.8 mph) speeds. Forward volunteer motion was typically self limiting, until impacts exceeded the 5 kmh speed change level where the belts would arrest the motion. No injury reported from frontal crashes. The vehicles were subjected to repeated crash testing with original bumpers left intact. Overall, the threshold for the vehicles having a damage threshold was 3.4 to 4.7 mph for front bumpers. No ethics committee used and no physician examination was performed on subjects.
  • Severy D Matthewson J, & Bechtl C. Controlled Automobile Rear-End Collisions: An Investigation of Related Engineering and Medical Phenoena, Can Serv Med J, 1955. One male subject as a driver in the bullet vehicle was used in a 1941 Plymouth sedan at 10-23.8 kmh tests with no symptoms being reported.
Side Crashes-human Volunteer Testing
  • Matsushita T, Sato TB, Hirabayashi K, Fujimura S, Asuzuma T & Takatori T, X-Ray Study of the Human Neck Motion Due to Head Inertia Loading. SAE Paper 942208, 1994.Three side or lateral impacts done on sled testing with 2 males and 1 female volunteer. Speeds 3.4 to 4.2 kmh. No extreme motion of the head observed. No symptoms were reported. Exam done prior but no examination by a physician performed after testing.
  • Zaborowski AB. Human Tolerance to Lateral Impact with Lap Belt Only, SAE Paper 640843, 1964. Thirty-seven male Air Force volunteers ages 20-42 years. Volunteers were subjected to 50 lateral impacts at an average impact G of 3.25 to 9.02 for durations of 100-300 msec. The laboratory seat was propelled on a sled to the left side at speeds of 15-17 kmh (9.32-10.56 mph) and then stopped suddenly. All subjects tensed before the test except one subject. Muscle tensing reduced motion of subjects. Half of the subjects had symptoms at 6.25 average g’s or more. The symptoms resolved within days and were mostly headaches, neck, shoulder or hip pain. Two subjects were relaxed and hit their heads on side plate. One volunteer was unconscious for 2 minutes. Had examinations done by physician before and after testing.
SAE = Society of Automotive Engineers. 1 mph = 0.6214 kmh